Sunday, January 26, 2020

Cognitive Network Security

Cognitive Network Security Introduction: The rapid development of various communication and wireless technologies had led to ultimate spectrum insufficiency. This may cause a great spectrum extinction thereby not allowing new wireless services to be installed. To overcome this great spectrum disaster and to optimally use the underutilized bands, a new technology so called cognitiveradio evolved. This technology scampers the software programs thereby helps cognitive user to look for spectrum holes, pick the best among them, work jointly in coordination with other users and do not disturb the owner of spectrum on arrival[1].The members do stay connected in an ad-hoc manner and there is no guaranteed network architecture. This makes the privacy issues more intricate than in conventional wireless devices. [2]. The medium of transport is free air, any adulteration of data can be done without much being noticed by the sufferer and at the worst case, the data signals are even jammed. Establishing security in these networks is a ri sky task because of its inimitable quality. [4] The innate temperament of it has made it an open play ground for attackers. There are four layers in a cognitive network out of which Physical layer is the lowermost layer and various attacks are feasible here .The main focus is on attacks in these layers since it is the common layer and has same compatibility with all other devices. The rapid development of technology has led to a new attack so called Primary User Emulation Attack wherein the imitation of spiteful user as a primary transmitter occurs to deceive the secondary users and gain access over the white space. Better functioning of the Cognitive network is affected to a great extent if this Primary User Emulation Attack is severe.[3]Earlier methods and the most primitive are cyclostationary and the energy detection ones [11]. The first technique is based on the fact that the signals from primary users are periodic and do have regular cyclostationarity property. The second method involves comparison of energy level of the signal with a preset threshold. [10].These methods are already bypassed owing to the rapid growth of technology. It can be done either by impersonating the primary transmitted signal or high power signal to confuse the energy detector [9]. Thus to avoid the problem of PUEA, we need a trustable method to verify the arrival of primary user .One such method is verification of licensed user by means of biased reaction signalling[6]. The other technique involves LocDef , where we use localization technique by non interactive technique [7]. We can also use Public encryption systems thereby ensuring the trustworthy communication[5]. Primary user has a closely placed helper node which plays the role of a bridge thereby enabling of the verification of the primary user’s signals using cryptographic signatures and authentic link signatures.[8].There are hand off techniques meant for secret communication of sharing session keys between the client and the router [12]. We do add the tag for authentication in a transparent way so as no to interfere with the primary receiver but still maintain authenticity with the cognitive user. We can add this tag in parity bits of the codeword or in the modulation scheme .[13].But to make this signature embedding accurate, error control codes like convolutional codes, turbo codes or alamauti codes can be used. .A convolutional encoder is a linear predetermined-state device with n algebraic function generators and K stage shift register. The binary input data, is shifted as b bits at a time along the registers. Decoding can be done by either sequential decoding, maximum likelihood or feedback decoding[15]. In case of turbo codes, two RSC elementary codes are in a parallel organization. Maximum A Posteriori algorithm is used for decoding it in iterative process[16].In a highly noisy environments single error control codes do not have high coding gain. In order to improve this concatenated codes are preferred.[14] H ence to cope up with the FCC regulations, we proposed a method in which the authentication tag is embedded onto the data signal by the helper node after encoding and the comparative study of which concatenated codes serve the best to reduce the bit error rate has been discussed. II. PROPOSED METHOD: 2.1)HASH ALGORITHM: Procedure: Message is Padded in such a way that the length of message matches to 896 modulo 1024 . In certain cases ,the length may match yet the padding becomes additional. We do add a binary bit 1 followed by binary 0s to make the desired length. Depending upon the actual message size, we may have n number of bits padded where n=1 to 1024.We do assume that the message after padding is an unsigned integer of 128 bits and output of earlier two steps is a 1024 bit integer in order to calculate the length of message. Eight registers each of capacity to hold 64 bits (p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w) are needed to grasp the 512 bit results momentarily .This 512 bit output is carried over as an input to the consecutive stages. For the first stage, the previously stored transitional hash output is taken. On processing the padded message of 1024 bits, we get 64 bit as input per round. So to maintain the security and avoid repetitions, we do use a constant to point to the round number out of 80.After completion of 80 rounds, the final stage result is fed back to the first block until the message gets over. Thus we need (Oi-1) to produce Oi where I is the stage number. 2.2)METHOD OF EMBEDDING: We assume that the primary transmitter and the helper node share almost the same geological location and the helper node has a secret communication with the secondary users there. The primary transmitter on arrival generally transmits a data signal to its intended primary receiver. Since the primary transmitter has the highest priority and in no way it should be interfered we use the helper node to embed this security tag. The primary transmitter encodes the data sequence, modulates and transmits the signal. The data sequence after encoding is modulated and being transmitted by the primary transmitter. The helper node here repeats the signal and the hashed output is being embedded by it .Here the embedding is done in such a way that the tag to data ratio is comparatively low. Encode the data sequence to form N code words and each codeword contains p bits. We get an authentication tag by splitting the hash function output obtained earlier into p bit blocks. The tag thus obtained is su bstituted in the place of first p bits of the total N code words obtained. We do obey the regulations as per FCC since this tag embedding task is solely performed by the helper node. At the receiver end the authentication tag is retrieved and checked for authenticity. This tag verification is being done by the Cognitive Radio user upon reception since we did assume that the key for hash had been exchanged privately earlier. If verification is successful, the task is suspended and secondary user looks for any new white space. BLOCK DIAGRAM: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: BER VALUES FOR CONVOLUTIONAL CODES: BER VALUES FOR TURBO CONVOLUTIONAL CODES: BER VALUES FOR CONVOLUTIONAL-ALAMOUTI CODES: BER VALUES FOR TURBO-ALAMOUTI CODES: REFERENCES: O. Leà ³n ,Hernà ¡ndez-Serrano, J.,Soriano, M.,. Securingcognitiveradionetworks, International Journal of Communication Systems,23: 633-652. May 2010 Parvin, S.,Han, S.,Tian, B.,Hussain, F.K, Trust-based authentication for secure communication inCognitiveRadioNetworks,International Conference on Embedded and Ubiquitous Computing, Hong Kong; China;,pp. 589-596. December 2010. Zhang, C.,Yu, R.,Zhang, Y., Performance analysis of Primary User Emulation Attack inCognitiveRadionetworks,International Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing Conference,pp.371-376. August 2012. Parvin, S.,Hussain, F.K.,Hussain, O.K.,Han, S.,Tian, B.,Chang, E., Cognitiveradionetworksecurity: A survey ,Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 35: 1691-1708. November 2012. Parvin, S.,Hussain, F.K.,Hussain, O.K, Digital signature-basedauthenticationframework incognitiveradionetworks, International Conference on Advances in Mobile Computing and Multimedia,pp.136-142. December 2012. Kumar, V.,Park, J.M.,Kim, J.,Aziz, A., Physical layerauthenticationusing controlled inter symbol interference, International Symposium on Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks,pp. 286. October 2012. Ruiliang Chen, Jung-Min Park, and Jeffrey H. Reed,Defense against Primary User Emulation Attacks in Cognitive Radio Networks,IEEE transactions on Selected areas in communication,26:25-37. January 2008. Tingting Jiang., Huacheng Zeng., Qiben Yan., Wenjing Lou.,Thomas Hou,Y, On the Limitation of Embedding Cryptographic Signature for Primary Transmitter Authentication, IEEE transactions on Wireless communication letters,1:324-327. August 2012. Chen,R.,Park,J.,Reed,J.H, Defense against primary user emulation attacks in cognitive radio networks, IEEE transactions on Selected Areas in Communications, 26:25–37. 2008. Liu,Y.,Ning,P., Dai,H, Authenticating primary users’ signals in cognitive radio networks via integrated cryptographic radio networks via integrated cryptographic and wireless link signatures,IEEE Symp. on Security and Privacy, pp. 286–301. 2010. Kim,H.,Shin,K.G, In-band spectrum sensing in cognitive radio networks: energy detection or feature detection? ,ACM international conference on Mobile computing and networking, pp.14-25. 2008. He, Y.,Xu, L.,Wu, W., A local joint fast handoff scheme incognitivewireless mesh networks , IEEE transactions on Security and Communication Networks, 7:455-465. February 2014. Xi Tan., Kapil Borle., Wenliang Du., Biao Chen, Cryptographic Link Signatures for Spectrum Usage Authentication in Cognitive Radio, ACM conference on Wireless network security,pp.79-90.2011. Avila, J.,Thenmozhi, K, DWT highlighted concatenated multi band orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (MB-OFDM)-upgraded enactment, International Journal of Engineering and Technology,5:2155-2162. June 2013. Andrew J. Viterbi, Convolutional Codes and ’Their Performance in Communication Systems , IEEE transactions on Communication Technology,19:751-772. October 1971. Claude Berrou., Alain Glavieux ,Near optimum error correcting coding and decoding-turbo codes,IEEE Transactions on communications,44:1261-1271. October 1996 Wang,X.,Wu,Y.,Caron,B, Transmitter identification using embedded pseudo random sequences, IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting,3:244-252. September 2004. Danev,B.,Luecken,H.,Capkun,Z.,Defrawy,K.E,Attacks on physical-layer identification,ACM Conference on Wireless Network Security,pp.89-97. 2010. Proakis,J.G., Salehi,M, Digital Communications.New York, McGraw-Hill, pp. 192, 434, 472-474. 2007. Chen,Z.,Cooklev,T.,Chen,C., Pomalaza-R ´aez,C, Modeling Primary User Emulation Attacks and Defences in Cognitive Radio Networks, International Performance Computing and Communications Conference,pp.208-215. 2009.

Saturday, January 18, 2020

Book “The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas”

John Boyne’s novel The Boy in the Striped Pyjama’s published in 2006 tells the story by using a nine year old boy as the narrator to show the world through his eyes. The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas is a powerful story because it is told from Bruno’s perspective. The novel is set in the years of World War 2 and the colorcast where many Jewish families live their lives in fear of the Hitler and the Germans. Boyne has used many different languages in the novel such as Tone, Literacy Devices and Characterization to show the different features and perspectives from Bruno.The way Boyne describes Shmuel makes the reader really feel remorseful for this boy and the way he is being treated by the soldiers. Boyne Cleverly uses imagery and symbolism to describe Shmuel from Bruno’s perspective. â€Å"His skin was almost the colour of grey, but not quite like any grey Bruno has ever seen before. He had very large eyes and they were the colour of caramel sweets. † (p. 106-107. ) Boyne has impressively used imagery to show and represent people through Bruno’s innocent and naive eyes and really encourages the reader to read on.In the novel the way Boyne uses characterization, helps to show the different characteristics of Bruno and how he represents other characters from his perspective. â€Å"Who’s the fury? † asked Bruno. â€Å"Your pronouncing it wrong† said father pronouncing it correctly. â€Å"The Fury† Bruno said again but failing. (p. 117). Boyne uses this, to describe to the reader that Bruno is a naive and innocent young boy. Boyne uses implied meanings as you may have realised Boyne never mention Hitler but rather says fury and makes the novel really impacts the reader. Boyne uses a lot of one in his novel to express the feelings been told through the story.By the way Boyne has represented the way the soldiers laughed and mocked the children makes the reader leave with a distaste of the soldiers and are remorseful for the children. †But then one of the soldiers lunged towards them and they separated and seemed to do what he wanted them to do all along, which was to stand in a single line. When they did, the soldiers all started to laugh and applaud them. † (p. 37). It shows that the soldiers were horrible people, they pushed and laughed at all the children in the concentration camp and didn’t care one bit if it hurt them.The feeling that you get when you read this book, it is sad and depressing, which can explain why it is a very powerful story. The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas heavily impacts the reader in every way, making the novel very powerful. Boyne uses a younger innocent and naive boy, like Bruno, to tell the story by the view of a young child. Boyne uses Bruno as a narrator to highlight the prejudice that causes adults to behave badly and unkindly towards others. Using a naive narrator it confronts the reader about their own beliefs and values. The wa y Boyne cleverly use tone, characterization and literacy devices impacts the story greatly.

Friday, January 10, 2020

Biography of Noel Coward

Few writers have invested as much care into the personal image they publicly project as did Noel Coward. As a result, within popular culture the name â€Å"Coward† has become synonymous with a certain English style: the elegant silk dressing gown, the cigarette holder, charm, wit, clipped phrases, upper-class accents, and sex appeal. His plays reinforced this image, and Coward was not averse to audiences confusing him with his leading male heterosexual characters.Coward's homosexuality is now well understood, as is the fact that his public persona was a careful construction designed to hide his homosexuality from the general public. He was, for example, unimpressed with Oscar Wilde, calling him â€Å"a silly, conceited, inadequate creature . . . a dreadful self-deceiver† (The Noel Coward Diaries, 135). Although by the 1960s Coward was writing openly about the Homosexual Bill in Parliament in both his diaries and his play Shadows of the Evening, he failed to realize that his whole mannerism–the silk dressing gown, the cigarette holder, the raised eyebrow–was deeply artificial and camp.In addition to the creation of an immensely enjoyable persona, Coward's homosexuality may have also led him to the acidly witty exposure of society characteristic of so many of his plays and the comedy of manners ( Lahr). He well understood society's double standards and knew exactly how they might best be exposed through language. However, his success lay not with the epigrammatic phrase, but rather with the timing so that ordinary phrases become witty, hilarious, hysterical, or loaded with desperation. The recent revival of Coward in London, labeled by some critics as Coward for the nineties, attests to Coward's enduring qualities.To a certain extent he ignored modernism and sweeping changes in the theater, preferring instead to perfect the comedy of manners. Yet his sparse but witty dialogue that relies on situation and moment, his consciousness of la nguage as a weapon that can damage, and the gap between the grace of the language and what people actually do to one another ensure that Coward is more than merely an entertaining period comedy writer. Even Coward's birth date of 16 December 1899 seems suspiciously auspicious, falling at the end of an old century, and early on Coward appeared determined to embody the new century.He was born into a middle-class suburb in Teddington, Middlesex, and not into the world of cocktails and dressing gowns that his plays were to celebrate. His devoted mother Violet had married a piano salesman, Arthur, from a musical family, and she adored the theater and certainly passed that on to her son. With her encouragement, Noel took acting lessons at the age of ten in Miss Janet Thomas's Dancing Academy, and in September, 1911 he auditioned for his first part in The Goldfish.The year 1911 saw the beginning of his relationship with Charles Hawtrey, one of the great Edwardian actor-managers, when Noel first appeared in Hawtrey The Great Name. Hawtrey cast him in a series of plays: The Great Name, Where the Rainbow Ends, A Little Fowl Play, and The Saving Grace. Between 1911 and 1917 Coward appeared in a number of plays and quickly learned to appreciate the pleasure of an audience, which, he claimed, launched him on his writing career. He was finally drafted into the army in 1918, but his tubercular tendency and neurasthenia ended his army career after a few short months.Between 1918 and 1920 Coward survived by acting in a few small roles and writing stories for magazines and song lyrics. Early success came with I'll Leave It to You, a vehicle he wrote for himself and Esme Wynne-Tyson staged in Manchester and London. Critics agreed that a new talent had emerged. At the age of twenty-four, Coward confirmed this with The Vortex. Coward was hailed as a sensational talent. He shocked audiences with the subject matter of the play, but those who got beyond shock appreciated Coward's tal ent for writing. He seemed to epitomize the age's need to live life at a fast rate.His early success was confirmed with Hay Fever, produced in 1925, and Easy Virtue. Coward's finest play, Private Lives, written, like so many others, at high speed and as a vehicle for his dear friend Gertrude Lawrence, opened the 1930s. During this decade Coward wrote his finest work. In 1931 he wrote Cavalcade, in 1932, Design for Living, in 1935, ten one-act plays in Tonight at 8:30, and in 1939, This Happy Breed. During this decade he also acted as a somewhat unsuccessful spy and more successful patriot. In 1940 he toured Australia for the armed forces and in 1941 toured New Zealand.In that same year Blithe Spirit was produced, and he wrote the screenplay for In Which We Serve. During the early 1940s Coward enjoyed success with films. In 1943 he produced This Happy Breed; in 1944 he produced Blithe Spirit; also in 1944 he wrote the screenplay for Brief Encounter, based on Still Life, a play from t he ten in Tonight at 8:30, and the film was produced in 1945. With the end of the war Coward's popularity declined. His musical Pacific 1860 was not successful and was followed by the equally unsuccessful Peacein Our Time in Our Time, written in 1946 and produced in 1947.These failures continued through the 1950s with the musical Ace of Clubs in 1950 and the plays Relative Values in 1951 and Quadrille in 1952. In 1953 his career took a new shift when he performed as a cabaret entertainer at Cafe de Paris. In 1954 he wrote Nude with Violin and moved first to Bermuda and then in 1959 to Switzerland. During the late 1950s and 1960s Coward once more enjoyed success with a production of Waiting in the Wings in 1959, the musical Sail Away, and an attack on the new drama written by Coward himself in 1961 for The Sunday Times. In 1964 Hay Fever was revived and directed by Coward at the National Theatre.His last appearance on the West End stage came in 1966 with Suite in Three Keys. In 1970 Coward was knighted, and there followed in 1972 a revue in London named Cowardy Custard and Oh! Coward in Toronto, which reached Broadway in 1973. Coward died of a heart attack in 1973 at his retreat in Jamaica. This play, dealing with a mother's affair with a young man the same age as her son, and a son addicted to drugs, launched Coward's career. Both characters long to be adored, and both promise to change at the end of the play and give up their respective vices.Although the Lord Chamberlain almost refused the play a license, Coward managed to obtain one by persuading the Lord Chamberlain that the play was really a moral tract. Agate noted that Coward lifted the play from disagreeable to â€Å"philosophic comment,† but complained that â€Å"the third act is too long† (Mander and Mitchenson, 69). Hastings commented firmly that this was a â€Å"dustbin of a play† (Morley 83). Nevertheless, most critics praised the play, especially those in America such as the reviewers for the New York World, the New York Post, and the New York Tribune, who called it â€Å"the season's best new play† (Cole 47).Later critics such as Lahr (18-26) and Gray (34-41) still praised the play for the literary leap Coward exhibited. The 1952 revival was set in the 1920s and received mixed praise: the London Daily Mail complained about its â€Å"frantic piano-playing at every crisis† but noted that â€Å"the wit still sparkles and that final hysterical scene between the son and the mother with a lover of just his own age has lost little of its old dramatic sting† (Mander and Mitchenson 21-22). Coward's finest play, Private Lives, claims no political message, and each element is fully resolved in this beautifully symmetrical play.Amanda and Elyot have each remarried and meet on their honeymoons with their exceedingly dull spouses. Elyot and Amanda appear in turn on their Riviera balconies, each having a similar conversation with their new spouse s. The play begins by contrasting balanced scenes in which Amanda and Elyot discover that the only way to communicate with their new spouses is through language, but they are unable to do so. Thus, when Elyot attempts to probe Sibyl's mind and discover her future plans, she responds: â€Å"I haven't the faintest idea what you're talking about.† She functions on the simplest level of language as talk, of words having a precise and limited meaning. Similarly, Amanda finds Victor equally limited. When she articulates her belief that communication depends on â€Å"a combination of circumstances† and takes place â€Å"if all the various cosmic thingummys fuse at the same moment, and the right spark is struck,† Victor can only reply that she is not nearly as complex as she thinks she is. For Elyot and Amanda, language communicates all too well on a literal level, but their feelings do not align with the words or with each other's words.They use the language of the com monplace as a weapon. In one of their most memorable scenes, they display their sophisticated barbs when Amanda asks, â€Å"Whose yacht is that? † and Elyot replies â€Å"The Duke of Westminster's, I expect. It always is. † Amanda, opening herself for the next retort, exclaims, â€Å"I wish I were on it,† to which Elyot replies, â€Å"I wish you were too. † None of these lines is especially witty alone, but given their context and the timing, they are funny and sad.This couple cannot live apart, and yet as act 2 reveals, neither can they live together. Indeed, in the second act language becomes too effective a weapon, so that periodically Amanda and Elyot must resort to a technique to literally stop communicating. When language threatens to communicate their old jealousies and recriminations too starkly, they resort to using the word â€Å"sollocks†; the device fails and language refuses to submit to such control. When Amanda and Elyot refrain from relying on language, they can communicate.Thus, if they divert themselves with word games such as deciding whether it is a â€Å"covey of Bisons, or even a school of Bisons,† or perhaps â€Å"the Royal London school of Bisons,† they succeed. But when they try to discuss something meaningful, such as their five years apart and the question of other lovers, they find language powerful and disturbing. Amanda says that she would not expect Elyot to have been more or less celibate than she was in their five years apart, but he cannot separate the words from the meaning they imply.He cannot bear the thought that she was not celibate, and in the ensuing argument he concludes, â€Å"We should have said sollocks ages ago. † They should have ceased conversation because language is too destructive. What makes Coward very much a twentieth-century writer is his refusal to restore harmony to this chaos. We must accept that Amanda and Elyot cannot live together without fighti ng and there will be no happy ending because their attempts to control language are futile.Moreover, this futility infects Victor and Sibyl so that their previous united front disintegrates, and as they echo the arguments of Amanda and Elyot, Amanda and Elyot sneak out to fight another day. Coward's couples find that language communicates only too well so that they can neither live together nor apart, and in this, Coward embodies the awful dilemma of the human condition. Contemporary scholarship should continue to explore Coward to dispel the notion that he is just a period writer. Works Cited Cole Stephen. Noel Coward: A Bio-Bibliography.Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993. Coward, Noel. Private Lives, Bitter Sweet, The Marquise, Post Mortem. London: Methuen, 1979. Gray, Frances. Noel Coward. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1987. Lahr, John. Coward the Playwright. London: Methuen, 1982. Mander Raymond, and Joe Mitchenson. Theatrical Companion to Coward. London: Rockliff, 1957. M orley Sheridan. A Talent to Amuse: A Biography of Noel Coward. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985. Payn, Graham and Morley, Sheridan. The Noel Coward Diaries. Ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1982.

Thursday, January 2, 2020

Racial Profiling Is The Root Of Dysfunction - 1513 Words

Racial Profiling is the Root of Dysfunction in Society The fear of the other races creates the false sense for the need for racial profiling, which causes dysfunction in society. We naturally fear danger and our fear one event creates causes a lasting impression about the people of color (POC) to make oneself feel safer. Due to the fact that most people of high power are white men, they typically are protected from discrimination with their supremacy and social position. However, POC do not have such privilege, and are typically subjected to discrimination. The fear that follows tragic events, fear of danger, and fear of losing power one may have creates the need to racially profile the POC, which leads to the corruption and dysfunction of society. After tragedy, one will naturally want to protect themselves, to try to avoid such happenings again. However, when paranoia are takes racial profiling too far, we end up denying rights and being unjust in the unneeded hope to protect thems elves. In World War II, we sent over 100,000 Japanese to detention centers after the tragedy of Pearl Harbor in fear that the Japanese would turn against America. The US government, â€Å"asserted the Japanese-Americans and other Japanese immigrants represented a threat to national security, since the U.S. was at war with Japan,† (â€Å"The Use of Profiling† Issues and Controversies). In the panicked attempt to avoid another attack by Japan, the people of America had rushed to protect themselves,Show MoreRelatedClosed-Circuit-Television and Surveillance2313 Words   |  10 Pageswestern world, surveillance is emerging as an instrumental means of sovereign control. Surveillance-centered sates use the power to acquire material of specific individuals, extensive analysis of situations, groups and people, as well as inhibiting dysfunction. Surveillance is also used by companies and or stores to deny theft. Regardless the specifications of surveillance, all practices use t he same modes of inquiry, supervision, regulation, and organization. The progression of technology and governmentRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesCultures 604 Point/Counterpoint Responsible Managers Relieve Stress on Their Employees 607 Questions for Review 608 Experiential Exercise Power and the Changing Environment 608 Ethical Dilemma Changes at WPAC 609 Case Incident 1 Starbucks Returns to Its Roots 610 Case Incident 2 The Rise of Extreme Jobs 610 Appendix A Research in Organizational Behavior 616 623 Comprehensive Cases Indexes Glindex 637 663 About the Authors Stephen P. Robbins Education Ph.D. University of Arizona ProfessionalRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 Pagesmove away from the position in which marketing and strategic management have, for many commentators, become synonymous. Instead of a myopic preoccupation with market share, competitor activity and so on, marketing should, he claims, return to its roots of a true customer focus. A broadly similar line of argument has been pursued by Christopher et al. (1991), who highlight the fundamental importance of marketing relationships rather than one-off transactions. The fourth, final and most radical position